Association between stereotypical perceptions of persons infected with COVID-19 and individual differences in behavioral immune system

During the spread of COVID-19, prejudice and discrimination against infected persons, their family members, close contacts, and health care workers have become a problem. In this study, we investigated stereotypical perceptions of persons infected with COVID-19 and examined their association with individual differences in behavioral immune system activation. The results showed that the stereotypical perceptions of persons infected with COVID-19 were low sociality and high activity. Next, we examined the effect of infection vulnerability awareness on stereotypical perceptions. The results showed that the stronger the germ aversion, the stronger the perceived lack of infection prevention behaviors, the lower the perceived sociality of the persons infected with COVID-19, and the higher their own perceived infection prevention behaviors. The content of the stereotypes of the persons infected with COVID-19 and the factors influencing these stereotypes were discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

The influence of social anxiety, trait anxiety, and perceived vulnerability to disease on the frequency of face mask wearing

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychological factors related to the frequency of face mask wearing (mask wearing) among Japanese people. Specifically, the influence of social anxiety (scrutiny fears, social interaction anxiety), trait anxiety, and perceived vulnerability to disease (germ aversion, perceived infectability) on mask wearing frequency was examined. We also investigated whether the relationships were altered based on the COVID-19 pandemic and the seasons. Online surveys (N=6,742) were conducted in the summer and winter sea sons from Aug. 2018 to Dec. 2020. Results showed that scrutiny fears, perceived infectability (but only in the winter season), and germ aversion affected the frequency of mask wearing before the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the relationships were altered as the COVID-19 pandemic spread. Scrutiny fears and perceived infectability did not play a role in the frequency of mask wearing. These alternations of results could be derived from the increase in mask wearing rate, changes in the reasons to wear masks among Japanese people, and elevation of perceived risk to COVID-19 due to the increased transmission. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Work-from-home intention during the COVID-19 pandemic: a perspective integrating inclusive leadership and protection motivation theory

Purpose: The present study integrates inclusive leadership and protection motivation theory to propose a new model predicting employees' intention to work from home during an emergency situation such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Design/methodology/approach: A questionnaire was developed to collect data from 939 Taiwanese and Vietnamese office employees using a non-probability convenience sampling method. A total of 887 valid questionnaires were used for further analysis. The data were analysed following a two-stage structural equation modelling using SPSS 22 and AMOS 20 software. The validity and reliability of the instrument were tested and ensured. Findings: The results revealed that inclusive leadership and factors related to protection motivation theory– including perceived severity and perceived vulnerability – have positive direct and indirect effects on employees' work-from-home intentions through the mediating role of employees' work-from-home-related attitudes. Protection motivation theory factors were found to have a stronger effect on employees' work-from-home intention than inclusive leadership. Differences in the relationship between perceived vulnerability, perceived severity and employees' intentions towards working from home were also discovered among participants from the two studied countries. Practical implications: The integration of inclusive leadership and protection motivation theory brings into light what will drive employees' intention to work from home during an emergency situation. The present study has several theoretical and practical implications for scholars, governments, managers and policymakers that can help them improve management policies for working from home in the future. Originality/value: Based on integrating inclusive leadership and protection motivation theory to explore employees' intention to work from home during an emergency situation, the present study demonstrated that inclusive leadership and protection motivation theory should be considered for studies on working from home in a pandemic setting. © 2023, Emerald Publishing Limited.

COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance: A Case of Interplay Between Political and Health Dimensions

Vaccines are essential for the eradication of diseases. Yet for many reasons, individuals do not embrace them completely. In the COVID-19 pandemic and with the possibility of the Brazilian population's immunization against the disease, both political and health-related dimensions might have had a role in individual COVID-19 vaccination acceptance. In two studies (n = 974), we tested the hypothesis that participants' vaccination acceptance is related to their past vote in the 2018 Brazilian presidential election (being or not being a Jair Bolsonaro voter) and their different levels of perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD). We further tested whether Bolsonaro's opposition or ambiguous messages towards vaccination (vs. control) increased vaccination rejection among those who have (vs. have not) voted for him and who are low (vs. high) in PVD. Results show that Bolsonaro (vs. non-Bolsonaro) voters accepted less vaccination, with higher rejection rates when participants expressed low (vs. high) PVD. Also, when primed either with Bolsonaro's opposed or ambiguous messages towards COVID-19 vaccination, such participants accepted less vaccines (vs. participants primed with neutral information). These findings are the first to show that the COVID-19 vaccine acceptance is related to their past vote and leadership influence but also different levels of perceived vulnerability to disease. © 2023 International Society of Political Psychology.

Factors affecting customer intention to use online food delivery services before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

With the emerging popularity of online food delivery (OFD) services, this research examined predictors affecting customer intention to use OFD services amid the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. Specifically, Study 1 examined the moderating effect of the pandemic on the relationship between six predictors (perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, price saving benefit, time saving benefit, food safety risk perception, and trust) and OFD usage intention, and Study 2 extended the model by adding customer perceptions of COVID-19 (perceived severity and vulnerability) during the pandemic. Study 1 showed that all of the predictors except food safety risk perception significantly affected OFD usage intention, but no moderation effect of COVID-19 was found. In Study 2, while perceived severity and vulnerability had no significant impact on OFD usage intention, the altered effects of socio-demographic variables during the COVID-19 pandemic were found. Theoretical and managerial implications are provided. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

The Relationship Between Perceived Vulnerability to Disease and Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Serial Mediation by Fear of COVID-19 and Trust in the Government.

Purpose: The continuing global spread of COVID-19 has seriously jeopardized human mental health. How to reduce the damage of COVID-19 pandemic to people's mental health is a current research hotspot. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence mechanism of perceived vulnerability to disease on anxiety level during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: A total of 1085 Chinese subjects were investigated by using the Fear of COVID-19 Scale, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale, Trust in the Government Measure Scale and Anxiety Scale, which was conducted by an online survey using snowball sampling technique. Hayes PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to test the hypothesized mediating effects of fear of COVID-19 and rust in the government measure in the relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) and anxiety. Results: (1) the PVD significantly positively predicts anxiety level (0.001); (2) Fear of COVID-19 (p<0.001) and trust in the government (p<0.001) mediated the relationship between PVD and anxiety level respectively; (3) PVD could also indirectly predict anxiety level through the chain-mediated role of the fear of COVID-19 and the trust in the government measure (p<0.001). Conclusion: Our findings shed light on a correlation between perceived vulnerability to disease and anxiety. This study emphasizes the value of trust in the government in facing public stress events. Moreover, this study provides some implications for how to prevent or reduce public anxiety in an epidemic setting.

The effect of disease anthropomorphism on compliance with health recommendations.

The present article examines how disease anthropomorphism affects compliance with recommendations for preventing the disease. We find that consumers are more likely to comply with health recommendations when the disease is described in anthropomorphic (vs. non-anthropomorphic) terms because anthropomorphism increases psychological closeness to the disease, which increases perceived vulnerability. We demonstrate the effect of disease anthropomorphism on health compliance in seven studies with several diseases (COVID-19, breast cancer), manipulations of anthropomorphism (first person and third person; with and without an image), and participant populations (the US and China). We test the proposed pathway through psychological closeness and perceived vulnerability with sequential mediation analyses and moderation-of-process approaches, and we rule out alternative accounts based on known consequences of anthropomorphism and antecedents of health compliance. This research contributes to the theory and practice of health communication and to the growing literature on how the anthropomorphism of negative entities affects consumers' judgments and behaviors. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11747-022-00891-6.

The Association of Perceived Vulnerability to Disease with Cognitive Restraint and Compensatory Behaviors.

Individual differences exist in perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD). PVD is associated with negative responses (e.g., disgust) towards individuals with obesity and heightened sensitivity regarding personal appearance. Through increasing fear of fat (FOF), PVD may be associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors. We utilized an adult sample (n = 247; 53.3% male sex assigned at birth) recruited through Amazon's MTurk prior to the COVID-19 pandemic to investigate associations between PVD, cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors. Participants completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale, Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale, Dutch Eating Behaviors Questionnaire, and Goldfarb's Fear of Fat Scale. Mediation analyses were used to test our hypotheses. Perceived infectability (PVD-Infection) was associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors through increased FOF. Perceived germ aversion (PVD-Germ) was associated with cognitive restraint, but FOF did not mediate this association. Sex-stratified analyses revealed no significant sex differences. PVD may be an overlooked factor associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors in males and females. FOF was an important mediating factor in these associations. Increased engagement in cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors may reflect attempts to reduce FOF. Future longitudinal research should explore whether PVD is a risk factor for cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors.

Protection Motivation Theory and consumers' food safety behaviour in response to COVID-19.

The threat of COVID-19 has altered consumers shopping behaviour and increased consumers' willingness to purchase food using online food delivery services. Consumers were more likely to practice strict hand hygiene measures and were concerned with food safety. Such behaviours were likely driven by the fear and threat of contracting COVID-19. This study aims to use Protective Motivation Theory (PMT) to investigate how COVID-19 affects food shopping and food safety behaviour. An online, cross-sectional study was conducted in Indonesia and Malaysia to determine the protective motivation to engage in three food shopping and hygiene practices such as i) Safe food shopping behaviour; ii) Hand hygiene and avoiding cross contamination; and iii) Use of online food delivery services. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Spearman rho's correlation and binary logistic regression. A total of 1180 responses were received of which 1129 were valid. Gender was identified as a significant predictor across all food safety behaviours during COVID-19. Response efficacy and self-efficacy were significant predictors for food shopping behaviour while perceived severity significantly predicted hand hygiene practices after shopping. Age, frequency of food preparation and shopping, perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy and self-efficacy were significant predictors for use of online food delivery services. Our findings suggest that women were more likely to engage in protective measures during food shopping, carry out hand hygiene practices after shopping and use online food delivery services during COVID-19. Participants with higher response and self-efficacy scores were more likely to shop from markets or shops with high hygiene standards while participants who perceived COVID-19 as a serious threat were more likely to clean and sanitise their hands after shopping. Participants also believed that the use of online food delivery services helps to reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection. However, foods should be purchased from trusted restaurants or takeaways. This is the first study to use Protection Motivation Theory to explore consumers' food shopping, hand hygiene and online food delivery practices during COVID-19.

The psychometric properties and gender invariance of the Italian version of the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire (I-PVDQ) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire (PVDQ) measures beliefs associated with personal susceptibility to infectious diseases and behaviors or perceptions in the presence of potential risk of pathogen transmission. Given the onset of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 global pandemic, otherwise known as the COVID-19 pandemic, the construct being measured may function differently based on affective, behavioral, and cognitive changes along with the need to change norms and lifestyles in a global context. The present study aims to test the psychometric properties and the gender invariance of the Italian adaptation of the PVDQ to confirm that the scale can be used with Italian-speaking people, and that it functions effectively during a pandemic. METHODS: A total of 509 participants filled out an online questionnaire including the Italian version of the I-PVDQ (I-PVDQ) and several measures of psychological constructs. Reliability and factor analyses (single and multigroup) were conducted. Bayesian correlation tests and Bayesian independent sample t-tests were used to assess the validity of I-PVDQ. RESULTS: Exploratory factor analysis supported the two-factor structure of the I-PVDQ, and factor loadings loaded appropriately onto perceived infectability (PI) and germ aversion (GA). In terms of invariance, the scale showed configural, metric, scalar, and strict invariance across genders. Decisive evidence in favor of correlation with the measure of COVID-19 related fears for both PI and GA was found. There was strong evidence for observed correlations with COVID-19 related constructs such as intolerance to uncertainty, psychological inflexibility, resilience, stress, and anxiety. Women showed higher GA than men, while there were no gender differences in PI. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results suggest that the I-PVDQ confirms the psychometric properties of the original version and that can be used to detect PVD when it is affected by environmental circumstances since its functioning is preserved during a pandemic.

The Influence of Disease Avoidance Motive on the Economic Behavior Ethics under the Impact of Pandemic: A Moderated Mediation Model

Objective: As one of the basic social motives, Disease Avoidance Motive is the deep psychological factor behind many social behaviors. Since the emergence of the COVID-19 and its continuous spread across the world at the end of 2019, the ever-changing and recurring COVID-19 pandemic has increased people's fear and rejection of the threat of infectious diseases, and activated people's Disease Avoidance Motive, which has remained at a high level for a long time. This study takes Disease Avoidance Motive as the starting point, introduces COVID Control Regulations as the intermediary, and disease vulnerability as the regulator, to explore the influence of Disease Avoidance Motive on Economic Behavior Ethics. Methods: Regression analysis, SPSS Statistics and Moderated Mediation Model were applied and 524 random respondents were surveyed through Basic Social Motivation Scale, Pandemic Norm Compliance Questionnaire, Economic Behavior Ethics Questionnaire and Scale of Perceived Vulnerability to Disease. Results: (1) Disease Avoidance Motive positively predicts Economic Behavior Ethics;(2) COVID Control Regulations play a mediating role between Disease Avoidance Motive and Economic Behavior Ethics (3) Perceived Vulnerability to Disease positively moderates the direct effect of Disease Avoidance Motive on Economic Behavior Ethics. Conclusion: Under the moderation of Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, Disease Avoidance Motive exerts an influence on the Economic Behavior Ethics through COVID Control Regulations. © 2022 ACM.

Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire: psychometric validation with a Portuguese sample.

BACKGROUND: Individual differences in one's perceived vulnerability to infectious diseases are implicated in psychological distress, social and behavioral disease avoidance phenomena. The Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire (PVD) is the most extensively used measure when it comes to assessing subjective vulnerability to infectious diseases. However, this measure is not yet accessible to the Portuguese population. The present study aimed to adapt and validate the PVD with 136 Portuguese participants. METHODS: Factorial, convergent and discriminant validity (of both the scale and between each factor), and reliability analysis were assessed. RESULTS: A modified bifactorial model, comprised of Perceived Infectability and Germ Aversion factors, was obtained, with acceptable goodness-of-fit indices, adequate convergent and discriminant validity, and good internal consistencies. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the 10-items European-Portuguese PVD appears to be a reliable and valid measure of one's perceived vulnerability to disease, with potential relevance for application in both research and clinical practice pertaining to disease-avoidance processes.

The influence of face mask on social spaces depends on the behavioral immune system.

Interacting with objects and people requires specifying localized spaces where these interactions can take place. Previous studies suggest that the space for interacting with objects (i.e., the peripersonal space) contributes to defining the space for interacting with people (i.e., personal and interpersonal spaces). Furthermore, situational factors, such as wearing a face mask, have been shown to influence social spaces, but how they influence the relation between action and social spaces and are modulated by individual factors is still not well understood. In this context, the present study investigated the relationship between action peripersonal and social personal and interpersonal spaces in participants approached by male and female virtual characters wearing or not wearing a face mask. We also measured individual factors related to the behavioral immune system, namely willingness to take risks, perceived infectability and germ aversion. The results showed that compared to peripersonal space, personal space was smaller and interpersonal space was larger, but the three spaces were positively correlated. All spaces were altered by gender, being shorter when participants faced female characters. Personal and interpersonal spaces were reduced with virtual characters wearing a face mask, especially in participants highly aversive to risks and germs. Altogether, these findings suggest that the regulation of the social spaces depends on the representation of action peripersonal space, but with an extra margin that is modulated by situational and personal factors in relation to the behavioral immune system.

Career resilience of the tourism and hospitality workforce in the COVID-19: The protection motivation theory perspective.

By applying the protection motivation theory, the study aims to investigate factors influencing tourism and hospitality (T&H) workers' career resilience when faced with health-related risks at work during a pandemic. Data were collected from 495 part-time and full-time employees in the Vietnamese tourism and hospitality sector. The study found that workers' perceived vulnerability and perceived severity of the pandemic were positively associated with career resilience. Perceived severity was positively related to self-efficacy and response efficacy, while perceived vulnerability was positively associated with self-efficacy only. Both self-efficacy and response efficacy positively influenced career resilience through the mediating role of health risk preventative behavior. Theoretically, the study advances the stream of research in resilience in general and career resilience in particular among T&H workers when faced with a health-related crisis. Practical implications are provided with recommendations on how to facilitate career resilience among T&H employees working in the current high-risk environment.

Perception of Vulnerability and Ruminant Thoughts about COVID-19 in Spanish Students.

The current situation in schools in relation to COVID-19 can generate a decrease in academic performance due to factors intrinsic to students. Therefore, rumination about COVID-19 could interfere with students' attention, resulting in a decrease in their academic performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the relationship between the perception of vulnerability to the disease and rumination about COVID-19 from a cross-sectional sample of post-compulsory education students. The differences in the perception of vulnerability to disease and rumination in different groups were analyzed, separated by gender. Our data suggest a positive relationship between the perception of vulnerability to the disease and ruminants' thoughts about COVID-19 (r = 0.29). Gender differences are significant, with women having higher scores than men in both variables.

How negative anthropomorphic message framing and nostalgia enhance pro-environmental behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in China: An SEM-NCA approach.

Although extensive research has been conducted on promoting pro-environmental behaviors among consumers, little is known about whether and how negative anthropomorphic message framing (NAMF) and nostalgia affect pro-environmental behavior. To provide a framework for explaining pro-environmental behavior, this study integrates protection motivation theory, the stimulus-organism-response model, and message framing. To create the model of the influences on pro-environmental behavior, NAMF was employed as the external stimulus; the sense of environmental responsibility, environmental empathy, perceived threat, and perceived vulnerability as the psychological and cognitive response factors; pro-environmental behavior as the final decision of consumers; and nostalgia as the moderating variable. An online questionnaire was distributed and 380 usable questionnaires were collected using convenience sampling and analyzed using two complementary approaches: partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and necessary condition analysis (NCA). PLS-SEM results showed that pro-environmental behavior was significantly affected by NAMF (ß = 0.313, t-value = 5.583), environmental responsibility (ß = 0.207, t-value = 3.994), and perceived threats (ß = 0.252, t-value = 4.889). Meanwhile, an increase in nostalgia increased the effect of NAMF and environmental responsibility on pro-environmental behavior. The NCA results revealed that NAMF (d = 0.108, p < 0.001) and perceived threat (d = 0.209, p < 0.001) were key factors of pro-environmental behavior. In addition, for high level of pro-environmental behavior (>80%), NAMF (12.1%) and perceived threat (39.6%) are required. Finally, we offer several suggestions based on the results of our empirical research. For example, marketing and service offerings should be tailored to the needs of masses with different nostalgic tendencies to enhance their pro-environmental behaviors.

Masculinity, Perceived Vulnerability to COVID-19, and Adoption of Protective Behaviors.

Epidemiological data show that men and women have similar probabilities of contracting COVID-19. However, men with COVID-19 tend to have more severe outcomes than women. We performed two studies to analyze the associations between gender, adherence to traditional masculinity ideology, perceived vulnerability to COVID-19, and the adoption of protective behaviors against COVID-19. In Study 1 (quota sample of the Italian adult population, N = 1,142), we found no differences between men and women in terms of the perceived probability of contracting COVID-19. However, compared to women, men perceived themselves to be less likely to suffer severe consequences if falling ill. In Study 2 (Italian community sample, N = 305), a moderated mediation model showed that adherence to traditional masculinity ideology moderated the association between being man and the perceived severity of the consequences of COVID-19, which, in turn, showed negative associations with three protective behaviors against COVID-19. The article ends with a discussion of the strengths and limitations of this research.

Perceived Stress and Perceived Vulnerability at Healthcare Workers during COVID-19 Pandemic

Objective: This study evaluated the psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers (HCWs) and determined several risk factors. Methods: An online cross-sectional survey was administered to 244 HCWs recruited via the Google Docs platform. The 36-item questionnaire comprised three domains: demographic details, the Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10), and the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire (PVDQ). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the risk factors for adverse psychological responses. Results: Overall, 244 HCWs aged between 20 and 60 years old participated in the survey and the mean scores for perceived stress (PS), perceived infectability (PI), and germ aversion (GA) were 20.15, 28.83 and 47.78, respectively. Additionally, they were positively associated with gender. Females' score on PS (p=0.001), PI (p=0.017), and GA were also significantly higher than men (p=0.001).Scores on PSS-10 showed a significant difference between age groups (p=0.010) in contrast to GA (p=0.515) or PI (p=0.346).The regression model showed that the PI scores were higher among men (B=3.145) than among women (p=0.019).The analysis showed significant effects working during COVID-19 on PI scores (B=3.101;p=0.006).Furthermore, GA was also significantly related to worsening of the COVID-19 pandemic (B=2.73;p=0.004) and was higher among females (B=4.622;p<0.001). Condusion: According to the results of the study, gender, age, professional experience and knowledge, and working during a pandemic were important factors for PS and PVD. Additionally, supporting the mental health for HCWs obtaining adequate support and taking precautions are essential.

The Impacts of Media Exposure on COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors Among Vietnamese People: Evidence Using Expanded Protection Motivation Theory

In the context of no prescriptive medications and lack of sufficient vaccine, COVID-19 preventive behaviors were a top priority, particularly for developing countries. This study aimed to determine how the media influenced preventive behaviors of Vietnamese people against COVID-19. A mixed method was conducted, including qualitative research by a focus group with 11 participants and quantitative research by cross-section with 609 respondents. The results showed that media exposure was directly associated with increased perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, perceived self-efficacy, and knowledge about COVID-19 and indirectly associated with COVID-19 preventive behaviors. There were slight differences in the impacts of media on mediating constructs and preventive behaviors by generation, and no significant differences among subgroups by gender, place of residence, and educational level. This finding offered some implications that communication practice should specifically prioritize improving knowledge on COVID-19, its severity and vulnerability. Furthermore, public awareness towards threat appraisal, coping appraisal, and active conduction COVID-19 preventive behaviors.

Factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination behaviour in Latvian population: cross-sectional study.

Vaccination is the most effective way of limiting the spread of COVID-19. However, despite the proven effectiveness and safety of vaccines, there is resistance in society and the course of vaccination is slow. The aim of this study was to identify the factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination behaviour. Methods: The data originate from a representative sample of Latvian residents (N = 1017) taken in September 2021. The data were analysed using Chi-squared test, Mann-Whitney test, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, Kruskal Wallis test, and Binary Logistic regression analysis. Results: The results of the study reveal several factors that are associated with COVID-19 vaccination behaviour. These factors are a higher level of education, motivation for protecting oneself against illness, for promoting collective immunity, protecting relatives and other people from infection, as well as motivation for vaccination in order to keep a job or continue studies, and institutional trust. On the other hand, perceived social support from relatives is negatively associated with vaccination behaviour. Conclusion: A higher level of education and confidence in evidence-based information on COVID-19, provided by official sources of information, is the key factor in deciding whether to protect oneself from serious illness or to make a choice to promote collective immunity and protect other people. The need for vaccination in order to continue working and/or learning is also an essential motive for vaccination. On the other hand, the belief that, if necessary, it is possible to receive support from relatives may be a delaying factor in the behaviour of vaccination.